A Draft of a Treaty, with Annotations

Article VII: Chip Use Verification

1. Parties accept continuous on‑site verification of total chip usage by the ISIA at declared CCCs. The methods used for verification will be determined and updated by the Technical Secretariat, in accordance with the process described in Article III. These methods may include, but are not limited to:

   1. In-person inspectors
   2. Tamper-proof cameras
   3. Measurements of power, thermal, and networking characteristics
   4. On-chip hardware-enabled mechanisms, including retrofitted mechanisms
   5. Declaration of the workloads and operations of chips by the CCC operator
   6. Rerunning of declared workloads at an ISIA facility to confirm fidelity of declarations

2. The aim of this verification will be to ensure chips are not being used for prohibited activities, such as large-scale AI training described in Article IV.

3. In cases where the ISIA assesses that current verification methods cannot provide sufficient assurance that the AI hardware is not being used for prohibited activities, AI hardware must be powered off, and its non-operation continually verified by in-person inspectors or other ISIA-approved verification mechanisms.

4. The ISIA may impose various restrictions on how chips can operate in order to ensure proper verification. These restrictions may include but are not limited to:

   1. Restrictions on the bandwidth and latency between different chips, or between chips and their datacenter network, in order to distinguish permitted inference from prohibited training.
   2. Restrictions on the number or rate of FLOP/s or memory bandwidth at which chips can operate, in order to distinguish permitted inference from prohibited training or other prohibited workloads.
   3. Restrictions on the numerical precision of chip operations, in order to differentiate AI from non-AI workloads.

5. The ISIA will approach verification for different CCCs differently based on their likelihood of being used for AI activities and their sensitivity as relevant to national security.

6. The ISIA will lead research and engineering to develop better technologies for chip use monitoring and verification. Parties will support these efforts [more details would be provided in an Annex].

Precedent

In our discussion of precedent for Article VI, we described the continuous monitoring of former intermediate-ranged missile production sites under the INF treaty, which, while allowing for weighing and non-destructive scanning of vehicles leaving the facilities, did not allow inspectors inside the trucks or the sites themselves. Analogous perimeter monitoring of datacenters can provide some clues about operations from power draw, thermal emissions, and network bandwidth. But reasonable assurance that restricted AI operations are not occurring would likely require some combination of the elements we listed under Paragraph 1 of our Article VII, which includes tamper-proof cameras, on-chip hardware-enabled mechanisms, and in-person inspectors.

Such practices are already routine for the International Atomic Energy Agency, which is increasingly using around-the-clock surveillance technologies to supplement inspections:

Over a million pieces of encrypted safeguards data are collected by over 1400 surveillance cameras, and 400 radiation and other sensors around the world. More than 23 000 seals installed at nuclear facilities ensure containment of material and equipment.

One of the methods used under START I to verify compliance with missile performance characteristics was the sharing of almost all telemetry data transmitted from in-flight sensors during tests, as specified in the telemetry protocol, which also required parties to provide any playback equipment and data formatting information necessary to interpret it. Depending on the mix of verification methods adopted, an International Superintelligence Agency may use analogous methods, building on the light-touch monitoring that is common practice for cloud computing providers to collect about customer workloads.

Continuous government monitoring of private commercial facilities (as most datacenters are) also has plenty of precedent. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, tasked with overseeing domestic nuclear reactor safety, places two resident inspectors in each U.S. commercial power plant, and U.S. meat producers cannot conduct slaughter operations if inspection personnel from the FSIS^[1] are not on site to oversee them.

Notes

Parties would want to ensure that existing AI chips are not being used to do dangerous AI training. There are legitimate reasons to use these chips to run existing AI services like (extant versions of) ChatGPT. The ISIA thus requires the ability to verify that AI chips are only being used for permitted activities.

This article creates a positive incentive to join the treaty: A country may continue using AI chips as long as supervision can verify that their use does not put the world at risk. Given the goal of preventing large-scale AI training, there are two main approaches: Ensure nobody has the necessary hardware (i.e., that AI chips do not exist), or ensure that the hardware is not used in the development of superintelligence (i.e. via monitoring). Monitoring is what permits the continued safe use of AI chips. This is conceptually analogous to IAEA Safeguards: In order for a non-nuclear weapon country to be permitted nuclear materials and facilities, it is necessary for the IAEA to inspect and ensure the use is only for peaceful purposes.

Feasibility

Various technical methods could be used to make verification easier. For example, using the algorithms of 2025, AI training requires much higher bandwidth compared to AI inference. Thus, if the chips are connected using low-bandwidth networking cables, they are effectively limited such that they can engage in inference but not training. There are various nuances to these and other mechanisms;we refer curious readers to previous work on the topic.

This article tasks the ISIA with developing and implementing better verification mechanisms, defined broadly. We think this flexibility is necessary due to the pace of change in AI and the possibility that unanticipated developments could disrupt verification methods. The state of AI verification research is also nascent; more technological development in verification technology is important to give ISIA a solid set of tools.

It is much easier to verify whether a new AI is being created than it is to verify that an existing AI is not performing dangerous inference tasks (such as research that advances the creation of superintelligence). As of August 2025, existing AIs don’t obviously seem capable enough for their inference activities to substantially advance the creation of superintelligence, and so the monitoring challenge that would be faced by ISIA is easier.

It is unclear how difficult it would be to monitor AI inference activities. Inference monitoring is already applied by many AI companies today, for instance to detect if users are trying to use AIs to make biological weapons, but it is unclear whether that monitoring is comprehensive, and it is unclear whether it would get less reliable if AIs were allowed to become more capable. The longer that AI capabilities are allowed to advance before a Treaty resembling our draft comes into effect, the more difficult monitoring would become. Verification that chips are only being used for permitted purposes would become more difficult and more expensive, or might even become impossible.

Other Considerations

In theory, verification could be facilitated by technological means that allow for remote monitoring. However, current technology likely contains security vulnerabilities that would allow chip owners to bypass monitoring measures. Thus, verification would likely require either continuous on-site monitoring or that chips be shut off until the technological means mature. Once monitoring technology is mature, strong hardware-enabled governance mechanisms could allow chips to be monitored remotely with confidence.^[2]

Paragraph 5 of this article allows the ISIA to carry out different verification methods for different CCCs. One reason for this discrimination is practical: Different CCCs would require different verification approaches in order to establish justified confidence that they are not being used for dangerous AI development. For example, large datacenters that were previously being used for frontier AI training would have the greatest ability to contribute to prohibited training and so might require greater monitoring.

Second, discrimination in verification approaches would make the treaty more palatable by requiring less invasive monitoring for sensitive CCCs. For example, intelligence agencies or militaries may not want any ISIA monitoring of their datacenters (which may have more computing power than 16 H100-equivalents despite being used for purposes that have nothing to do with AI), and this provision helps strike a balance. It would still be necessary to verify that these datacenters are not being used for dangerous AI activities, and the ISIA would work with these groups to ensure it can get the information it needs while also meeting the privacy and security needs of CCC owners. On the other hand, allowing different verification protocols might hurt the viability of the Treaty if it is viewed as unfair, especially if the decision making around these processes is unbalanced.

Our draft Treaty allows chip use and production to continue so that the world may benefit from such chips. One alternative approach is to shut down new chip production and/or destroy existing chips. Absent algorithmic advancements, the destruction of chips would increase the “breakout time” — the time it takes between when a group starts trying to create a superintelligence and the point at which they succeed. This is because (in lieu of algorithmic advancements), a rogue actor would need to develop the capability to produce chips, which is a lengthy and conspicuous process. However, because we think it’s feasible to track chips and verify their usage, we do not think that the benefit of longer breakout times is clearly worth the cost of shutting off all AI chips.